Auteur is the French word for “author”- the word used for the “author” of the story (the filmmaker). Filmmakers have recognisable visual style in their films. Therefore, you would know when it is one of their films. Some filmmakers work in many different forms and styles such as Brian De Palma and Takashi Miike, but others have more identifiable styles. For example, Alfred Hitchcock, Martin Scorsese, Quentin Tarantino, Wong Kar-Wai all have their own distinct style that is easily recognizable.

The problem with this is that there cannot really be one single author for a film as they are more collaborative projects- more people are involved such as cinematographer, set designers, actors, etc. However, generally the director is the person who would fit into the auteur status as they are the ones who have the most control over the film. But it could be a writer like William Castle or Val Lewton who made a series of low budget horror films in the 1940’s.

WILLIAM CASTLE: director, producer and overall showman.

Castle had a unique way of getting to his audience when presenting his film to them. For example, at his 1959 film, ‘The Tingler’ he brought hundreds of little electric motors at $3 each and sent them to cinema theatres and told them to put them under their seats. So, at some points during the film, the motors would go off, sending mini bolts of electricity through the audience- and they just accepted this without complaining. Electrocuting his audience was mild compared to some of the other ways he would manipulate them.

He would appear at the beginning of the films to warn the audience of the terror that they were about to receive. He took our insurance policies against people dying from fright during his film ‘Macabre’ (1958). All of this was a deliberate attempt to put the audience into a frame of mind in which they were already unnerved and disconcerted before even watching the film.

The auteur theory became a method of evaluation which enabled people knowledgeable about film, film history and individual directors to show their knowledge and superiority over the uneducated masses. Those who did not know what John Ford’s cavalry trilogy was or the importance of cigarette lighting in the films of Howard Hawks.

• In 1951, Andre Bazin founded ‘Cahiers du cinema’. He is often seen as the father of auteurism because of his appreciation of the world-view and style such artists as Charlie Chaplin and Jean Renoir. Younger critics at the magazine were the ones who developed the idea further, drawing attention to significant directors from the Hollywood studio era as well as European directors.

François Truffaut was one such critic. He was someone who became one of the greatest filmmakers of the French New Wave. Truffaut created the phrase ‘politique des auteurs’ to refer to the policy of venerating (treating with great respect and honour) directors.

• The French critics were responding to the belated influx of American films in France after World War II- they had been previously held back by import restrictions. Therefore, directors like Howard Hawks, Alfred Hitchcock and John Ford were hailed as major artist of cinema.
• Critics like Truffaut was aware that American filmmakers were working within the restrictions of the Hollywood system and that the types of films were often decided for them by studio executives.
• However, they believed that such artists could still achieve a personal style in the way that they shot a film.

EXAMPLE: STEVEN SPIELBERG

Steven Spielberg has a great history of filmmaking is quite a reputable example of an auteur. He is mainly known for his Jurassic Park films; however, you will find the same filming techniques in a lot of his other work.

These include:

• The supernatural among the normal– his films always include creatures that do not necessarily exist, such as prehistoric creatures such as megalodons, dinosaurs, giants, aliens, etc.
• The Spielberg face– the character reacting to something off camera with a shocked expression on their face.
• Ordinary people in extraordinary circumstances– the events in the movie feel even more momentous due to that fact that the people stuck in them have never experienced anything like it before- making the audience feel like it could be them in that situation too.
• Emphasis on childhood– the adults are out of touch with what really matters. For example, In ET, no adult faces are seen besides Elliot’s mother until the end of the film. The children always seem to be the ones stuck in the extreme circumstances whereas the adults remain oblivious.
• Reflection shot- it is theorised that Stevens often used reflection shot could be a ways for the characters to visual symbolise their own self-reflection.

Therefore, whenever we see these common traits in a movie- it is often tied to Steven Spielberg as he never seems to lose touch with his filmmaking traits.

With this auteurist approach, the French critics showed their appreciation of the Hollywood films that they loved.

However, the auteur soon gained recognition in America in the 1960’s through Andrew Sarris. He devised the notion of auteur theory (the French critics had not claimed the concept to be a ‘theory’) and used it to tell the history of American filmmaking through the careers and works of individuals. But Hollywood was wary of the idea that it produced art and not entertainment, therefore many Hollywood directors rejected the notion completely. They saw themselves as people who just made movies; they were craftsmen or hired hands, part of the production line.

Sarris’s approach led to the formation of a canon of great directors and, consequently, some filmmakers like Alfred Hitchcock cultivated their persona. Hitchcock was seen as the star of his own films; also known as the “master of suspense”.

This did have a negative impact on the people he worked with. According to biographer Donald Spoto in a book of interviews with Truffaut, Hitchcock hurt and disappointed just about everybody who had ever worked with him because the interviews diminished the contribution of the writers, the designers, the photographers, the composers, and the actors. These people became little more than elves in the master carpenter’s workshop.

Today, auteurism is not limited to filmmakers but can also be linked to actors. Because of todays marketing campaigns which heavily promote the stars of the film, more auteuristic than they ever were. The key things is the recognisable imprint that is left on a film.

Problem with the Theory:

• It might even be possible for a director to personally carry out every aspect of the production. If the director doesn’t fulfil all production functions- the ‘author’ of a film really identified and established?
• Film is collaborative- each person working on it also brings their own creative elements- not just the director.
• The auteur theorists weren’t interested in the historical context of the film- but the context of film within the total body of the directors’ work. It wasn’t known if the films related to the others made by the director.
• The auteur theory isolates films from their social and historical contexts from audiences- it treats filmmakers as being beyond time and being untouched by society or the industry that surrounds them.

Narrative Structure- Structure frames, gives context and makes a storyline comprehensible- which is why it is always completely vital. Narrative can trace its history back to the ancient Greeks. Greek drama had 5 five acts, each act would end with a chorus that would come onto the stage, replacing the actors and sing:

ACT ONE: Exposition- Laying out the story.

ACT TWO: Development- The story begins.

ACT THREE: Climax- In a love story, the loves consummate.

ACT FOUR: Denouement- Unravelling of the story.

ACT FIVE: Catharsis- Purging / Resolution.

Giovanni Boccaccio altered this structure. The Italian writer of De Cameron of the 12^th and 13^th century. He introduced into his narratives, the idea of a turning point or a twist in the story. The turning points were the most vital component of the narrative to keep the audience’s attention. However, this became simplified over time and along with works like Geoffrey Chaucer’s ‘The Canterbury Tales’ in 1475, this led to the developed of a straight, linear story containing surprise and intrigue which the audience could follow. Therefore, this led to the Three Act Structure:

• Act One – Set up (Exposition)
• Act Two- Development (Launch point/ crisis moment)
• Act Three– Resolution (Pay Off)

An example of the three-act structure can be seen in the film, ‘The Great Gatsby’.

ACT 1- Set Up:

The film starts with an unknown narrator; however, we find out that this narrator is Nick Carraway, a former war veteran and current writer who is being treated in a mental hospital. While talking to his therapist, he starts reflecting on his friendship with Jay Gatsby, his extremely wealthy next-door neighbour. He has a suspicious past and an illegal access to alcohol. However, Nick finds out that his cousin, Daisy Buchanan (who has now married a wealthy Yale graduate, Tom Buchanan) a part of Jay’s mysterious past. The story begins to unfold more as we find out more about Jay and how he came to know Daisy and how he achieved all his wealth. At the end of the first act, Nick arranges tea at his house with Jay and Daisy- which is their first time meeting in 5 years.

ACT 2- DEVELOPMENT

Within the development stage of the structure, Daisy and Jay restart their love affair and it is . Daisy’s husband starts to become increasingly concerned, despite having a mistress himself. Jay wants Daisy to leave Tom so that they can start their own life together. Daisy is hesitant. However, once Tom does more digging into Jay, he finds out that he is actually a bootlegger; he got all of his money from selling illegal goods.

ACT 3- RESOLUTION

Daisy returns to Tom, as he is old money and Jay is new money- Daisy being wealthy herself, it would be odd for her to marry out of her societal status. After Jay and Tom break out into an argument, Daisy and Jay leave, Daisy driving Jay’s car. On they way home, Daisy accidently hits Toms mistress. The mistress’s husband is out to get his revenge as he believed that Jay was the one responsible for her death, therefore, he ends up shooting and killing Gatsby. Daisy and Tom leave with their children to the West. This finally leaves Nick on his own, to piece everything together and write a book about it.

 

This type of structure works for film and theatre. However, when it comes to TV, it tends to be broken up into 4 acts, mainly for advertising. TV episodes are usually cut up into 4 separate parts due to adverts in-between. Therefore, each ending before the break needs to be enticing enough for the audience to come back and watch the rest. Therefore, it does this by building up action and then leaving it on a cliff-hanger.

 TYPES OF NARRATIVE

Linear- this is a chronological storyline. It is the most common, simple and organised. Linear narrative avoids flashbacks and dreams and predictable/archetypical (most original sense of the problem). The most common genres this storyline is suited to would be: children, factual, classic.

Single strand- This is one set story-line. It focuses on a single person/ hero and their story, there are  no group or team, however, secondary characters are allowed.

Nonlinear- There is no specific order to the story. It’s  fractured, altered, intensified and is used to  create a sense of instability. The  whole truth is unknown and there is no chronological order/less linear. The story-line is often back and forth in time and or characters POV.

Multi strand- This follows several story-lines in one overall story. There are different types of people  within the story and it focuses on each character’s individuals propose to the moral, goof for sequels, series, documentaries.

Circulatory (circular) narrative structure- the narrative starts where the story would usually finish. We see flashbacks to see how they got there to end the episode where it started.

TZVETAN TODOROV

Todorov suggested that every narrative has a similar structural model:

Equilibrium– knows as the ‘norm’ or status quo.

Disruption – (Event) something happens to disrupt the norm.

Realisation- when the characters realise that there’s a problem.

Repair- an attempt to fix the problem.

Resolution- the problem is fixed, and the equilibrium is restored.

EXAMPLE: The Hunger Games (2012)

Equilibrium-

The protagonist, Katniss Everdeen, a teenage girl living in her District with her mother and younger sister, Primrose. In the beginning of the film, she is seen practicing with her bow and arrow- in case she is ever chosen to participate in the Hunger Games.

Disruption: The disruption takes place when Primrose’s name is pulled from the box at the hearing and she is chosen to represent their District in the Hunger Games. To prevent this from happening, Katniss sacrifices herself as tribute instead of her sister. This shows that Katniss is willing to sacrifice her own life for her sister.

Realisation: Katniss realises the situation she is now in. She is aware that she may not see her family or fiends again and the most upsetting part is when she has to say goodbye to her sister, therefore she promises her sister that she will try to win the games for her.

Repair: Katniss is now ensuring that she will do everything she can in order to stay alive, despite all the difficulties she is surrounded by. For example, a friend named Rue she made while participating in the games gets killed, which makes her even more determined to win the games.

Resolution: At the end of the story, Katniss and her companion Peeta in the games together. She then returns home to her family.

Claude Levi- Strauss

Characters are more than simply entertaining- they are the carrier of the story’s themes. The theme is the filmmakers moral idea about how people should live- it is as the core of the character. The idea or principle dictates the character’s internal logic- their motives, beliefs, behaviours, and crucially the choices that they make.

Binary oppositions – The films theme is most clearly illustrated through the conflict between the protagonist and antagonist.

Strauss was interested in exposing the structures that myths and fairy tales most commonly used.  To disrupt order on to a chaotic world, a myth may set up a binary opposition (opposing ideals in a narrative that create conflict and tension) but then resolve the narrative in a way which favours one over another; for example, good triumphing over evil or altruism over selfishness.

EXAMPLE: Spider-Man (2002)

Opposite 1- Spiderman is the protagonist- he is seen as the hero and is very clearly presented as one with his costumes safer/ stronger appearance.

Opposite 2– The Green Goblin is the villain in this story. His evil/scary appearance portrays that he is rebellious and means more harm rather than good.

This is typical to see in an action movie as there is always a hero and a villain.

Christopher Volger & his Hero’s Journey

According to Volger, the hero’s story in always a journey, which can be external or internal. They exit their comfort of their home and what they know and venture into a world with challenging aspects.

Vogler-Campbell- Hero’s Journey:

1. Ordinary World- the hero is seen in their everyday life.
2. The Call to Adventure- The initiating incident.
3. Refusal of the Call- the hero experiences hesitation.
4. Meeting with the Mentor- The hero gains supplies, knowledge and confidence needed to commence the adventure.
5. Crossing the Threshold- the hero commits fully to the adventure.
6. Tests, Allies and Enemies- the hero explores the special world, faces trail and makes friends and enemies.
7. Approach to the Innermost Cave- the hero nears the centre of the story and special world.
8. Ordeal- the hero faces the greatest challenge yet.
9. The Reward
10. Road Back- the hero returns to the ordinary world or continues to an ultimate destination.
11. Resurrection- hero experiences the final moment of death and rebirth so they are pure when they re-enter the normal world.
12. Return with the Elixir- hero returns with something to improve to the ordinary world.

EXAMPLE: SPIRITED AWAY

1. Ordinary world- The movie begins with Chihiro sulking in the car on the way to her new home. She is upset about her leaving her friends and old life. She appears to be unenthusiastic.
2. The call to adventure- While on the way their way to their new house, Chihiro and her family get lost ad come across an old abandoned theme park. They decide to explore- however this only leads them to an odd town with no people, but it does however display food.
3. Refusal of the call- Chihiro is hesitant and unsure about the theme park and is the only one who finds it strange that they are alone. However, her parents are too intrigued by the food and start devouring everything on display, but Chihiro does not share the same interest in the food. Her instincts turn out to be true when her parents turn into pigs while eating.
4. Meeting with the mentor- Feeling scared, Chihiro runs away from the pigs. She then meets Haku, he warns her to leave the spirit world before the sun sets, but her way back is blocked by a newly formed lake. Haku gives her a magical berry that stops her from vanishing.
5. Crossing the threshold- Now that she has recognised that she is trapped, Haku helps Chihiro cross the bridge to the bathhouse, in order to stay hidden, she has to hold her breath while she crosses.
6. Tests, allies and enemies- Chihiro goes to the boiler room and meets Kamaji and Lin. She tells them how much she wants to work to earn a safe place in the spirit world. They tell her to meet the evil head of the bathhouse, Yubaba, to get a job. Yubaba changes her name to Sen and sends her off to work with Lin.
7. Approach to the Innermost Cave- Sen begins work at the bathhouse. One day, she meets a strange spirit that no one else notices. When she lets him in, he creates a mess by giving out gold to everyone and eating employees. Sen later manages to calm him down but he continues to follow as a friendly/helpful shadow.
8. Ordeal- Sen sees a dragon being attacked by paper shikigami and realises that its actually Haku. She follows him all the way through to Yubaba’s chambers. Her son notices them and makes their presence known. They leave buy Haku is still stick. Sen cures Haku by giving him the remnants of the stink spirit she once attended to at the bathhouse.
9. The Reward- Sen and Haku go to the house of Zeniba, Yababa’s twin sister to return the stolen magic seal. Zeniba helps Sen remember her true name- Chihiro- which she can use to free herself from Yubaba. On the way back, Chihiro also remembers Haku’s real name-Nigihayami Kohakunushi. Haku finally gains his freedom from Yubaba’s control. Chihiro confronts Yubaba, who tells her if she can recognize her parents from all the pigs, she can leave and have her real name back.
10. Road back- Chiro is told her parents are waiting her back where she originally came. Haku comforts Chihiro, reminding her that he is free and that they will meet again- warning her not to look back.
11. Resurrection- Chihiro sees her parents again, they scold her, unaware of her whereabouts, clearly not remembering anything from the spirit world. The proceed back to their car, Chihiro is hesitant and is about to turn back, but she decides against it and leaves.
12. Return with the elixir- Chihiro is back in the car, feeling hopeful and ready to start her new life as she is stronger now than she ever has been.

 Vladimir Propp- Functions and Characters:

The Hero: a character that seeks something, they drive the story and narrative. They can be either a quest narrative or a mystery/enigma-

Example- Katniss Everdeen- she starts a revolution to the help the victims of the villain.

The Villain: who opposes or actively blocks the hero’s quest, they try to get in the hero’s way.

Example- President Snow- he is the one responsible for the Hunger Games. He does not care about people getting hurt or dying because he believes that people are a threat to him.

The Donor: who provides something to help the hero.

Example- Haymitch- he provides Katniss with things that can help her and Peeta win the competition

The Dispatcher: who sends the hero on his/her quest

Example- President Snow- he sends the tributes into the Games.

The Helper: who aids the hero (a sidekick)

Example- Peeta- he acts as a helper to Katniss by joinig her in the Hunger Games.

The Princess: the reward for the hero (this can be a person or an object)

Example- Primrose Everdeen- Katniss sacrifices herself for her sister, by her staying alive, it is a reward for Katniss.

The Father: an authority figure who rewards the hero for completing the journey

The False Hero: someone who appears good but is not (they betray the hero)

One character could perform a number of these functions, furthermore these functions can often be metaphorical instead of literal.

 

 

Psychoanalysis is an attempt to understand the ways in which we are unconsciously/subconsciously motivated to act in a certain way- it’s aims to discover why humans do what they do and what is lurking deep within the unconscious human mind.

Why is Psychoanalysis significant?

• This concept was originally developed by Sigmund Freud, however, many academics apply it today through the work of Jacques Lacan.
• According to Lancian’s model, the self is created by differentiating itself from the surround world. This was also called the ‘mirror stage’ by Lacan, as it is through the reflected image that the infant first starts to see themselves different to their surroundings.
• Film and media provide mirrors that help individuals to understand who they are and what their place in the world is.

For those who apply a Lacanian approach (or other psychoanalytic approaches), the viewer is seen as attempting to discover who they are through the text. This is one of the reasons why feminist film theory often draws upon psychoanalysis; the text shapes who we are along with how we see ourselves and others.

Freud:

Freud was the original founder of psychoanalysis and others have built upon his work and theories. He believed that dreams had meanings and that they could be interpreted; meaning they revealed something important about what was going on in our brain.

He stated that we were driven by a “pleasure principle”- we become well-adjusted adults. However, if it is repressed too much, we develop neuroses.

Freud came up with the idea that our minds have 3 parts which are constant conflict:

• ID (driven by the ‘pleasure principle’). This is our animalistic self who just wants easy gratification
• The Ego
• The Superego (driven by a need to follow the rules). This is our supreme self – rational, logical and intelligent

The Virgin Whore Dichotomy

Freud stated that men were unable to find a woman sexually attractive when they demonstrated traits associated with being good. However, they were unable to trust women who demonstrated traits associated with being bad. This theory was based upon Freud’s 1916 theory, ‘The Madonna/Whore Complex.

This put men in a position of anxiety and therefore meant women were forced dto adopt either the Madonna or the Whore persona but not both.

• “Where such men love they have no desire and where they desire they cannot love” (Sigmund Freud, 1916)
• The virgin/whore dichotomy has built this original theory to extended to popular culture studies and analysis. Females in popular culture are often seen as having to adopt either the virgin or the whore persona in order to be successful and are unable to have both personalities simultaneously. But often society rewards the virgin and punishes the whore. Women learn that, in order to succeed, they need to be pure and chaste (containing female sexuality and independence).

 The Oedipal/ Oedipus Complex

• This theory states that we prefer one parent over the other- this is based upon the Greek tragedy of Oedipus who accidently killed his father and marries his mother without knowing at the time, they are his parents.
• It largely concerns male children who are completely dependent on their mother – the mother is the child’s entire world. She feeds the child, protects them and nurtures them.

However, the infant fears that the father might come between him and the mother and so wants him gone. The baby wants to remove the threat posed by the father in order to be solely with the mother.

 

Furthermore, the infant becomes aware that, later in life, he will have a companion much like their mother. This sexual confusion creates anxiety and panic in the child which they take with them for the rest of their lives. Sometimes, the female child is the one who resents the mother because of the relationship they have with the father.

Carl Jung called this Electra Complex for females, but Sigmund Freud called it Oedipal Complex for both. The theory has been developed to suggest that men get ‘womb envy’ and women get ‘penis envy’.

These issues are often in films, not literally but symbolically. For example, the male character might become obsessive of female characters who represent a matriarchal figure, or they resent other male characters who represent patriarchal figures. For females, it is portrayed as a female character becoming obsessive over a patriarchal male character and resenting matriarchal female characters (The Oedipal/Oedipus Complex).

Genre is term that Glen Creeber, Jane Feuer and Steve Neale all pointed out, is a French word, meaning ‘type’ or ‘kind’ and emerged following the 19^th century’s mass production of art- mainly literature. They stated that “genre studies can be broken down into different ‘types’ or ‘kinds’, i.e. a group of texts can be linked together by similar generic characteristics” (Creeper, 2004, p.78).

Overall, genre functions by organising and categorising texts within a framework of bounded rules.

Narrative-similar plots and structures with predictable sequences, situations, obstacles, conflicts and resolutions.

Stock Characters- similar types of characters (sometimes stereotypical) roles, personal qualities, motivations, goals and behaviour.

Setting and Location- geographical and historical.

Iconography – a familiar stock of images or motifs.  Primarily but not necessarily visual, including décor, costume and objects, certain ‘typecast’ performers (some of whom may have become ‘icons’), familiar patterns of dialogue, characteristic music and sounds.

Filmic Techniques- Stylistic or formal conventions of camerawork, lighting, sound recording, use of colour, editing, etc. (views are often less conscious of these conventions than those relating to content.

As genres rely on the audiences’ understanding of codes and conventions, the over-usage these codes create the risk of the content becoming predictable. However, saying this, going too far off the expected codes and conventions could cause audience dissatisfaction as the text doesn’t fulfil the generic expectations. Therefore, media producers have to balance ‘repetition and difference’ (Neale).

This might suggest that every text that is created can easily be fit into a genre, however this is not the case, most of the time, many texts can fit into sub-genre’s.

For example within the comedy genre- there can be various types:

• Romantic Comedy
• Examples: Roman Holiday, When Harry Met Sally, Love, Rosie
• Anarchic Comedy
• Examples: Monty Python and the Holy Grail, Blazing Saddles, Animal House.
• Action-Comedy
• Examples: Beverly Hills Cop, Rush Hour, Hot Fuzz.
• Black-Comedy
• Examples: Fargo, Harold and Maude, Dr. Strangelove or: How I Learned to Stop Worrying and Love the Bomb.
• Horror-Comedy
• Examples: Beetlejuice, Zombieland, Shaun of the Dead.
• Dramedy
• Examples: Little Miss Sunshine, The Royal Tenenbaums, Lost in Translation.
• Parody/Spoof
• Examples: Life of Brian, Naked Gun, Scary Movie.

Each one of these genres has a whole host of codes and conventions of their own. For example, a romantic comedy has a softer, more pleasant approach, whereas an action-comedy will include more violence but use comedic relief to make the scenes less tense/ vulgar.

Fixed genres:  while these genres might change slightly over time, they are considered to be fixed because they remain fully true to the codes and conventions This is because of

• Cultural Significance (tradition)
• Relationships to history/ historical events.

Non-fixed Genres: Most genres do change over time. Film like all art, reflects and negotiates the real world. As such, the genre texts shift with shifts in culture.

Hybrid Genres: These are texts that deliberately mix the codes and conventions of more than one genre. For example, Peaky Blinders contains a broad mixture of crime, mystery, drama, action, romance, etc. This means that there is a broader spectrum of viewing pleasures for the audience.

Genres are never static but are always going through a constant cycle.

Stage 1: Experimental Stage

• The conventions of a genre are defined and established. For example, horror films in the 20’s and 30’s all cantered around monsters and set up traditions such as narrative or makeup.

Stage 2: Classical Stage

• One the conventions have been established; they are cemented through repetition. For example, horror films develop similar storylines, ways of shooting, use of actors, characters and visual similarities.

Stage 3: Refinement Stage:

• Here, genres need to adapt because audiences become familiar with it. For example, it’s no longer the monster that are scary, but the new mysterious neighbour. New extreme methods need to be used to create shock.

Stage 4: Self-referential Stage:

• Audience familiarity with conventions make it almost impossible to do it ‘straight’. Therefore, parody and deconstruction become common. For example, Scream or Cabin in the Woods.

No Genre/ Anti-genre:

Some media texts cannot be categorised because they do not follow any obvious conventions. Genre relies on multiple texts to follow the conventions. If there is only one example, it is yet to be put into a genre.

SEMIOTICS:

Semiotics is the study of signs. Importantly, because we all of cultural experiences and we all perceive the world differently, any sign or communication text (like a film) can have many different meanings, depending on who is looking at it, this is known as polysemy.

Because everything is culturally charged with meaning, everything becomes a sign and every sign connotes something to the audience.

Ferninand De Saussure- The Sign– A sign is something which represents something to someone. Saussure said that there are two parts to each sign:

• Signifier – the label we put on a sign – the name or the sound
  – Signified – the mental association that we have when we hear or see the sign

Roland Barthes:

Denotation: The basic, literal meaning of what is in the picture or scene (what it actually is)

Connotation: What we associate the image with in our minds (indirect and associative meaning). These are the different interpretations suggested by the text, often associated with additional meaning, values or ideology

Anchorage: The way that text (or parts of text) anchor particular meanings to images. In this way the creator of a communication text can steer the reader to the meaning that they prefer them to have.

Stuart Hall- Encoding and Decoding:

For the audience theories based on audience passivity, the text is closed – the meaning cannot change. However, for Stuart Hall, the text is open to a range of different meanings – there is not just one way to read a text, but a multiple (polysemic) ways.

For Hall, the three ways to read a text are preferred (what he termed hegemonic), negotiated and oppositional readings:

Preferred or Dominant Reading:      

The creator of a text (communication) may want it to be received in a certain way and so will construct it to ensure this happens – this could also be known as the dominant/hegemonic reading. You agree with the messages within the text.

Negotiated Reading:

An interpretation of the text in which, while identifying the dominant reading, you also seek to modulate this – you agree with some of the messages/messages.

Oppositional Reading:          

Any reading which rejects or significantly challenges the dominant meaning. Under this model the reader is the key factor in the communication process and the production of meaning.  Therefore, meaning is no longer singular and clearly demarcated or defined by authorial intention – meaning is not created by a God-like author.

Instead, meanings can change – meanings are plural and created through the relationship between the individual reader and the text.

• Say that stars reflect current trends
• Say that unsuccessful stars do not reflect current trends
• Talk about the role of institutions in creating stars
• Talk about how stars reflect current ideologies – and give examples

 THE STAR THEORY:

Star Theory: this can refer to how a person has been created by a media institution in order to attract certain audiences and generate money.

This theory was coined by Richard Dyer, and implies that the star being exhibited is not a true representation of that individual, but instead a persona that has been created. This constructed persona is responding to current trends and ideologies.  The construction of a star is based upon current trends with the idea that audiences can relate to this. Successful stars will follow the trend and change the aesthetics and behaviours in relation to these trends.

These people then become seen as not only representative of a trend, but also an authority that influences the masses. Therefore, unsuccessful stars will be ones that are either unable to react necessarily to the trends or who are completely mis-constructed from the beginning.

Institutions:

Media Institutions:  These are companies/groups who construct the celebrity/star and sell them to the audiences. Their intention is to create the celebrity (star) and sell them to the audiences. They want to create a star that they feel can represent specific audiences in a way that will encourage that audience to relate to them and buy into the star persona. By investing into the star persona, audiences will feel a desire to follow this star, therefore giving money in exchange for the products (films, music, etc.) as well as buying into the culture- and that most likely means buying into fashions and even behaviours.

Ideology: this is a set of commonly held beliefs and ideals within a given culture. Whilst these ideologies change from various cultures and shift over time, there is usually a media representative/star that embodies these ideologies. The star can embody these behaviours, aesthetics and ideologies. In return, this also influences the audience how to they should behave, how to dress and how to think. For example, through magazines, music videos, films, television shows will all communicate the common ideologies of the culture.